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Y-DNA Haplogroup for male-lineage: Y-DNA haplogroups refer to genetic groupings based on markers found in the Y chromosome, which is passed down exclusively from father to son. These haplogroups are identified by specific genetic mutations occurring in regions of the Y chromosome that do not undergo recombination. Two key types of markers used in this classification are short tandem repeats (STRs) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Researchers have used Y-DNA haplogroups to explore the migratory paths of early human populations and to trace their origins back to Africa. These groupings help map the male line of descent over thousands of years. 

TMRCA ESTIMATIONS OF ALL Y-DNA HAPLOGROUPS: https://www.yfull.com/tree

mt-DNA Haplogroup for female-lineage: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups trace maternal ancestry through mutations found in mitochondrial DNA, which is passed from mothers to their children. These haplogroups represent major branches in the evolutionary tree of human mtDNA and are used to study maternal lineage through history. Researchers have used mtDNA haplogroups to explore the migratory paths of early human populations and to trace their origins back to Africa. These groupings help map the female line of descent over thousands of years. 

TMRCA ESTIMATIONS OF ALL mt-DNA HAPLOGROUPS: https://www.yfull.com/mtree

Autosomal DNA Test for Ethnicity Estimate: There are several autosomal DNA calculators that provide ethnicity estimates for individuals. These estimates reflect the likelihood that your ancestry aligns with specific populations. For example, if a result states "You are 50% XX," it means there is a 50% probability that your genetic profile matches individuals from that ethnic group or region. It does not mean that 50% of your DNA originates directly from that group.

Ethnicity estimates are generated by comparing your autosomal DNA to reference populations composed of genetically distinct individuals. These reference panels form the basis of each calculator’s algorithm. Because of the complexity of human ancestry and genetic overlap between populations, these estimates cannot be used to determine precise genetic relationships or deep ancestral origins.

Most calculators apply thresholds—such as 3 or 5 centiMorgans—when identifying autosomal DNA matches. As a result, the findings are most reliable for tracing recent ancestry. Individuals from different ethnic backgrounds who have lived in the same geographic region over the past 500–600 years may receive similar results. Therefore, it's important to understand the role of autosomal match thresholds when interpreting your results. Keep in mind that autosomal percentages are probabilistic estimates, meaning that two people with identical percentages could have significantly different genetic compositions.